A VOYAGE FROM CAUVERY TO MEKONG-- LIFE AND TIMES OF SRI RAJENDRA CHOLA --PART 1

2

A VOYAGE FROM CAUVERY TO MEKONG- LIFE AND TIMES OF
SRI RAJENDRA CHOLA – PART I





What are all the steps ,a modern statesman can take for his nation’s progress?

He can strengthen his borders and make it secure so that he can peacefully concentrate on development activities.
He can send trade delegations to foreign countries for developing trade.
He can provide security to this trade delegations so that there will be safe passage of goods in transit.
Through this measure he can increase per capita income and GDP.
He can strengthen his bureaucratic machinery, so that there will be a balanced development across the economic ladder to all sections of society.

Well , all these measures seems to be difficult even in this modern era isn’t it.
But a thousand years before when most of the Europeans were uncivilized an emperor from south of India did all this apart from extending his empire from south india to Orissa, Bengal , and upto S E Asia. He was RAJENDRA CHOLA, the greatest of all chola monarchs and the most illustrious son of the great chola monarch Rajaraja chola. It is really surprising to know that Cholas maintained strongest navy of the contemporary world and the bay of Bengal was converted into ‘chola lake’.
If you happen to go through any standard text book of Indian history you will find only four sentences mentioning the chola empire which ruled southindia and srilanka for more than 300 years, where as you will find the detailed description of some sultans’ rule whose ‘empire ‘would not have extended beyond the national capital territory of delhi. it is quite strange isn’t it.

Rajendra`s reign marked the pinnacle of glory of the dynasty of the Cholas. His power was nonparallel. During the final years of Rajendra the Chola Empire was the widest with the navy and army reputation at its peak. Perhaps it was one of the biggest and powerful empire of the Asian continent and contemporary world.

Of late, some researchers have started throwing doubt on the overseas expeditions of Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola on the plea that the Parasasti / Meikkirti could have been written with poetic fantasy and exaggerations rather than the factual accuracy. These researchers argue that even, had Rajendra Chola had gone overseas it could have been only a raid to loot and not to set foot as a conqueror!

Some historians declare that the chola state during the period of Rajaraja and Rajendra chola are segmentary states. In “segmentary states", the state"s functions were custodial rather than regulative, ritualistic rather than managerial. Thus these historians argue that Cholas resorted to the policy of “plunder and piety" . Rajaraja and Rajendra too fulfilled their charitable obligations in an extravagant way, aggressively acquiring booty only to donate more lavishly to temples and Brahmins. In such an attempt, the Thanjavur inscriptional details of Cholas expedition to South East Asian Countries are dubbed as mere rhetoric. Though, non-Indian researchers point out the maritime activities, international trade, import and export of goods, movement of people-groups with religious beliefs (especially buddihists) etc., their studies have been restricted to Chinese, Arabic and European exploits with passing reference to Indians and Cholas.

Accepting the fact of Indian goods, people, their religion, temple-building technology etc., going there, but doubting their mode of travel appears illogical and unhistorical. Therefore, a critical analysis is required to find out

(i) Whether there are any corroborative evidences for the conquests claimed by inscriptions or whether they are mere poetic exaggerations.
(ii) Whether the shipping, shipbuilding and naval capabilities of the Cholas are true and Whether Naval battles were fought or not.

To find out answers we have have to analyse the life and times of
Sri Rajendra Chola I

Rajendra chola’s year of birth is surrounded with mystry. Thirvalangadu inscriptions talks about vanavan madeviyar, one of the queens of the great Raja raja chola. Probably she was mother of Rajendra chola. the inscrption is not dated and hence the year of birth of Rajendra chola is not known.The great tamil writer amarar Kalki , in his magnum opus Ponniyin selvan (the historical fiction penned with the members of the royal Chola family in lead) talks about one vanathidevi, princess of kodambalur being the mother of Rajendra chola. Not much is known about early years of rajendra chola.

Rajendra Chola became the crown prince in 1012 AD. Both father and son equally ruled the Chola Empire during the final few years of Rajaraja chola. This practice of choosing a successor and discharging administrative duties was an unique feature of the Chola administration and was done to avoid disputes regarding succession. The princes who had come of age had been appointed in various positions of authority in the different provinces of the empire according to the individual’s to aptitude and talent. Those who distinguished themselves in those positions could be chosen as sucessor. In some cases, a more talented younger could win the nod over the eldest son.Hence unlike many other medieval dynasties we don’t find any succession battles in chola dynasty.

The famous Tiruvalangadu inscription consists of all his military achievements and other details too. It was in the year 1018 C.E in his 6th reignal \ year Rajendra Chola released the copper plates, which were found around 1903 from the Siva temple during renovation. 31 Copper plates were put on a copper ring
bearing the distinct Chola emblem, the majestic tiger. About 10 plates contain Sanskrit scripts and 21 contain Tamil.

Rajendra Chola became co-regent, as well as the Mahadandanayaka Panchavan Maharaya – supreme commander- of the northern and northwestern dominions during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. Rajaraja Chola I had made the crown prince Rajendra Co-Regent in 1012 C.E. Both Son and Father reigned as equals during the final few years of Rajaraja’s life. Rajendra lead from the forefront of some of Rajaraja’s campaigns, such as those against Vengi and Kalinga towards the end of Raja raja’s reign.. Rajendra Chola early in his life assisted his father in his military conquests of Kerala and the Western Chalukyas of Karnataka.


Rajendra formally ascended the Chola throne in 1014 C.E., two years after his installation as the Co-Regent. Early in his reign in 1018 C.E., he installed his eldest son, Rajadhiraja Chola I, as yuvaraja (Co-Regent). Rajadhiraja continued to rule beside his father for the next 26 years. According to chola tradtion the son ruled in as full regal status as the father .

Conquests of Rajendra Chola

On behalf of his father Rajendra had successful campaigns against the capital of the Rashtrakutas , manyakheta ( present day malkhaid) and region around the current northwestern present Karnataka state, southern Maharashtra up to Kolhapur ,Pandharpur. .Rajendra also led campaigns against the Western Chalukya Satyasraya and his successor Jayasimha-II by crossing the river Tungabhadra, carried the war into the heart of the Chalukya country and attacked their capital. He overran large parts of the Chalukyan territory including Yedatore(a large part of the Raichur district between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra), Banavasi in the north-west of karnataka before taking a tour of the capital Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta). Both the kings were forced to flee from their capital into the western ghats with the Chola emperor erecting a Siva temple at Bhatkal after completing his victory and levying tribute on the vanquished Chalukya kings. He also conquered Kollipakkai, modern day Kulpak located to the north of Hyderabad in present day Andhra Pradesh. Here is an excerpt of his inscription(original in Tamil) from Kolar, Karnataka:
“
In the 8th year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who,-
while the goddess of Fortune, having become constant, increased, and while the goddess of the great Earth, the goddess of Victory in battle and the matchless goddess of Fame, having become his great queens, rejoiced-that in his extended lifetime, conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi shut in by a fence of continuous forests; Kollipakkai, whose walls were surrounded by sulli trees; Mannaikkadakkam whose fortification was unapproachable;..
”
Invasion of Sri Lanka

Rajendra invaded the island of Sri Lanka in 1018 C .E to complete the task began by his father, (for many reasons Raja Raja Chola I was able to conquer only half of the Sri Lanka in his time) of conquering the island of Srilanka, Rajendra invaded the island in 1018 CE As a result of the campaign, Rajendra claimed to have captured the regal jewels of the Pandya kings( kalki in his ponniyin selvan talks about this manimalai which was supposed to be royal jewel of pandyan kings kept in srilanka), which Parantaka I tried in vain to capture. Rajendra also captured the crown of the Sinhala king, The Sinhala king Mahinda V was taken prisoner and transported to the Chola country, Mahavamsa ( the chronicle of sinhalse kings) records indicates that Chola invasion and conquest of Lanka as a carnage wrought by the pillaging Chola army in the Sinhala country.Chola inscriptions speak about the fight between the Cholas and the Sinhalase was mainly due to the fact that the traders from Tamil country had been looted, imprisoned and killed for years together, in return for which the Cholas sent their army to invade, occupy and control the island of Sri Lanka. An excerpt of his inscription from Kolar, Karnataka:
“
In the 8th year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who-..conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi..etc.-
..the crown of the king of Ilam(Ceylon), and the more beautiful crown of his queen; the beautiful crown and the necklace of Indra, which the king of the south (the Pandya) had previously surrendered to the kings of Ilam; the whole of Iramandalam surrounded by the clear sea;..
”

Mahinda’s son Kassapa became the centre of Sihalese resistance against the Tamil Power. The war between the Cholas and the Sinhalese raged. The Cholas prevailed over the Sinhalas and re-established their control which lasted till the time of Kulothunga Chola III.

Remains of a number of Hindu temples damaged by the Sinhalas after the end of Tamil occupation in Sri Lanka have been discovered around the Polonnaruwa area attesting to the presence of the Tamil army.

In 1041 CE Rajendra had to lead another expedition into Sri Lanka to quell the continuing attacks against the Chola army by Vikramabahu. Vikramabahu died soon after and anarchy reigned outside the Chola territories. An assortment of adventurers including Sinhalese, dispossessed Pandya princes and even a certain Jagaitpala from distance Kanauj asserted authority over portions of the island. Chola army fought and defeated them all. Thus, Rajendra Chola was able to fulfill his father's dream to bring the whole Sri Lanka under Chola territory.

Pandyas and Cheras

In 1018 C.E , Rajendra made a triumphal march at the head of his army through the Pandya and Cheras (Kerala) countries. Rajendra’s Tiruvalangadu grants claim that he …’took possession of the bright spotless pearls, seeds of the fame of the Pandya kings’ and that ‘…the fearless Madurantaka (Rajendra) crossed the mountains and in a fierce battle brought ruin upon the Chera kings.
Rajendra appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title Jadavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya with Madurai as the headquarters of the Viceroyalty.

Chalukya Wars

C. E 1021 Rajendra had to turn his attention towards the Western Chalukyas. In 1015 C.E Jayasimha II became the Western Chalukya king. Soon after his accession he tried to recover the losses suffered by his predecessor Satyasraya in the hands of the Cholas, who has fled his capital, unable to withstand the Chola onslaught, but had been graciously restored to the throne by Raja Raja I and became a tribute paying subordinate. Initially Jayasimha II was successful as Rajendra was busy with his campaigns against the Pandyas and in Sri Lanka.

Jayasimha also decided to involve himself in the affairs of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. After the demise of the Vengi king Vimaladitya, Jayasimha threw his support behind Vijayaditya VII against the claims of Rajaraja Narendra, another of Vimaladitya’s sons by the Chola princess Kundavai. Rajendra naturally had his affinity towards Rajaraja, his nephew (for Kundavai was Rajendra’s sister). A civil war ensued between Vijayaditya and Rajaraja. However with the help of Rejendra, Rajraja Narendra was soon able to defeat the forces of Vijayaditya

Rajendra followed the same tactic adopted by his illustrious father of sending two armies, one to Vengi and the other to the Chalukyan capital itself. Rajendra’s forces met Jayasimha in the western front and defeated him in the battle of Maski. Rajendra's forces also crossed swords with the Chalukyas at Kollippakkai near Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta), the capital of Jayasimha-II. Many of Jayasimha-II's generals, called Mahasamantas and Dandanayakas paid with their lives for the intransigence of their inept king, as described in the Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra I. Rajendra routed Jayasimha thoroughly with the result the Chalukya king ran away from his capital and was forced to flee and rule from distant Etagiri. This war is extensively described in the inscriptions of Rajendra Chola I at the Raja Rajesvara Temple, Thanjavur.Rajaraja Narendra had his coronation in Vengi after the return of the triumphant expedition to the Ganges in 1022 CE and Rajendra gave his daughter Ammangadeviin marriage to Rajaraja.

In 1031 CE, the Western Chalukyas invaded Vengi and drove Rajaraja Narendra into exile and installed Vijayaditya as the Vengi king. Rajaraja once again sought Chola help in regaining his throne. Rajendra Chola deputed his able son Rajadhiraja I as head of the Chola army which invaded the Vengi and in a bloody battle near Kalidandi, pushed back Vijayaditya and his Western Chalukya ally. Rajaraja Narendra regained his throne in 1035 CE

Due to his consistent and complete vanquishing of the Chalukyas under Satyashraya and Jayasimha-II along with their feudatories, the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Banas, Vaidumbas and the Gangas etc. and the establishment of control over Kannada country, Rajendra I had famous titles like Mudikonda Chozhan (crown prince), 'Jayasimha Saraban' (the vanquisher of Jayasimha), Mannaikonda Sozhan (the King who took possession of Mannai(kadakkam) i.e. Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta - called Mannaikadakkam in Chola annals), Irattapadikonda Sozhan (the king who conquered Irattapadi or the land of the Rashtrakutas (later usurped by the Chalukyas), Nirupathivaagaran (the king who subdued Hoysala Nrupathunga and his successors).

A few years before his death, Rajendra Chola again invaded the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta due to Chalukya Jayasimha-II and his successor Somesvara I's interference in the Chola territories by forcibly collecting revenues from farmers. A Chola outpost was attacked leading to a resounding reply by the Chola forces first under Rajendra I, following which the command was taken by his able son and co-regent Rajadhiraja Chola (called Vijayarajendra in Tamil inscriptions). This was the first full-fledged war between the Cholas and Chalukyas in which Rajadhiraja Chola took the command of the Chola army in which he shone and proved his capabilities.This subjugation of the Chalukyas would intensify conflict between both empires with the Chalukyas to suffer more defeats at the hands of the successors of Rajendra I in the coming years. The victories in war with the Chalukyas would enable to Cholas to gain much riches, gold, jewellery, cavalry items like horses, elephants and armaments in addition to vast sums of cash which were ceded by the Chalukya kings as tribute to the Chola emperors, who graciously restored them their empires .

Despite founding the new Chola capital of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Rajendra I was modest by according respect to his predecessor's achievements, especially those of his illustrious father Raja Raja I by placing inscriptions of his achievements only at the Big Temple in Thanjavur and not at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. This practice was kept up by the succeeding Chola kings,


Expedition to the Ganges

With both the Western and Eastern Chalukya fronts subdued, Rajendra’s armies undertook an extraordinary expedition. In 1019 CE Rajendra’s forces continued to march through Kalinga to the river Ganges. The Emperor himself advanced up to the river Godavari . The Chola army eventually reached the Pala kingdom of Bengal where they met Mahipala and defeated him.

According to the Tiruvalangadu Plates, the campaign lasted less than two years in which many kingdoms of the north felt the might of the Chola army. The inscriptions further claim that Rajendra defeated ‘…the armies of Ranasura and entered the land of Dharmapala and subdued him and thereby he reached the Ganges and caused the water river to be brought by the conquered kings’ back to the Chola country. The new conquests opened up new roots for the Cholas to head for distant lands like Burma by land (through modern Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and Bangladesh). Rajendra's army defeated the kings of Sakkarakottam and Dhandabhukti and Mahipala. These territories were initially added to the kingdom, while later they had the status of tribute paying subordinates and trade partners with the Chola Kingdom, an arrangement that lasted till the times of Kulothunga-III . It was undoubtedly an exhibition of the power and might of the Chola empire to the northern kingdoms. But the benevolent leadership of the Cholas treated them in a benevolent manner and did not permanently annexe them to the Chola

In the second part of this article let us analyse the highlight of Rajendra chola’s career i.e overseas conquests, the ship building capabilities of chola navy and their successful naval battles in Kadaram and Sri vijaya and other E.Asian countries.