A VOYAGE FROM CAUVERY TO MEKONG-- LIFE AND TIMES OF SHRI RAJENDRA CHOLA PART 2

2

In the first part of this article we have analyzed the different military campaigns of Sri Rajendra Chola in India. In this part let us analyze the highlight of Rajendra chola’s career i.e overseas conquests,

A detailed account of overseas expeditions undertaken by Rajaraja chola and Rajendra chola has been recorded in the chola inscriptions as “Meikirti",

The concept of overseas expedition and conquering land across the seas are linked with Naval battles.Ship building and sailing techniques is an integral part of a naval battles. So we have to analyze the ship building capabilities of chola navy and we have to corroborate various evidences to find out whether naval battles were fought or not?

To prove the maritime adventures of cholas and also to find out the details of chola navy and naval battles, the following evidences can be analysed.

1.‘Ship-type’ Coins

2.Revenue System

3.Arabs reference to Cholas

4.Inscriptions found in the S E Asian Countries and China

5. Local literature of S E Asia

6.Astronomy during chola period

Cholas did not develop navy overnight. Right from the sangam age ( early years of common era) the tamils have been sea faring people. All the three kingdoms of ancient tamilagam the Cheras. Cholas and Pandyas had actively participated in sea trade through their ports such as poompuhar , korkai, muziri etc. We can find out a plenty of literary evidences for sea merchandise in sangam poetry.This has been corroborated by unearthing of roman settlements which belong to the early years of common era in puhar and korkai. . Roman coins which belong to the age of augstus ceasar have also been unearthed in korkai and down south in R. vaigai basin. We have numismatic evidence too to prove this sea merchandise.

1.Ship type coins

The introduction of ‘ship-type coins’ has been attributed to the Sathavahanas, who were ruling the south during c.200 BCE onwards, just touching the northern boundaries of the Tamils of the Sangam period .The Salankayanas and Pallavas have also issued similar coins proving that they too had seafaring abilities. Chola coins of the period depict stars, fish prominently indicating maritime activity.

2.Revenue System proves the Maritime activities of Cholas:

The Revenue system of the Cholas interestingly talks about duty on imported goods into their territories. The South Indian Inscriptions have given details about it. It is unique in the sense that the levy was imposed based on the type of the vessel in which the goods were imported or imported goods brought in instead of the goods imported. Thus, the levy is mentioned for the following:

Marakkalam = Ship

Patahu = Boat

Kalavam = Raft

3.Arabs reference to Cholas

Arabs mention about Cholas and their Kappal Sattiram (the science of ships) and Navai Sattram (The Technology of Shipbuilding) These literatures have included geographical tables with indications of the latitudes of ports for use of the mariners of the Coromandal coast. Of this technical literature mentioned by Arab writers, unfortunately no part has survived. It seems that Arabs destroyed the Indian originals and circulated their version as their own without any acknowledgement to Indians. And there was no respect for intellectual honesty or intellectual property, rights and so on, which we talk about nowadays!

4.Inscriptions found in the S E Asian Countries and China:

Significantly, inscriptions are found not only in Tamil and Tamil bilingual (Tamil with Sanskrit,) but also in S E Asian languages like Thai, old malay and also in Chinese have been found in S E Asian Countries and Eastern China respectively.

(i) Khau-Pra-Narai (Bra Narayana), about ten miles upstream on the Takuapa river, on the west coast of peninsular Thailand.

The Pallava Grantha and entirely in Tamil.

870 CE.

(ii) Loho Tuwa, just to the north of Barus on the west of the island of Sumatra.

Tamil in the Kawi script of Java.

1010 Saka era (1088 CE)

(iii) Neusu Aceh, North Sumatra

12th century CE

it deals with trading regulations among the exporters.

(iv) Batu Bapahat, west Sumatra

Tamil in the Javanese influenced central Sumatran script

13th century CE

(v)Porlak dolok, north Sumatra

Tamil and Old Malay / Javanese language.

13th cent.CE

(vi)Nkhom Si Thammarat Thailand

Tamil-Sanskrit, bilingual.

1261 CE

(vi)Pagan, Burma

13th cent.CE

(vii)Quanzhou, Eastern China

Tamil in Tamil-Chinese language.

13th cent.CE

5. Local literature of S E Asia

Local literarature of S E Asia points out that Cholas knew S E Asia more than the Arabs, S E Asian literatures mention about Coliya, Pandia, Meliyala and Tekang, thus clearly referring to Chola, Pandya, Malayala and the Deccan. one text by name Nagarakritagama is an old-Javanese literary work (dated to 1365). The text was discovered from Bali in 1894, translated and published later. In this work, the Colas are designated as Coda or Gauda. It mentions the places, which were raided by the soldiers of Rajendra Cola as Kampar, Kampe, Haru, Parlak, Samudra etc., . The local stories, particularly, the story of Manimekhalai shows similarity. Of course, the art and architecture prove the Indian influence.

Image

Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian architectural influences.[

6.The Astronomy of Chola Period:

The Shipping, navigation and astronomy go together. Rajaraja encouraged astronomy and there was vidhyalyas ( astronomical Colleges )exclusively at important cities like Madurai, Tanjai and Trichirappalli . Gangapuri a work of chola period mentions about an an astronomer hailing from Gagnaikonda Cholapuram, His name was Suryadeva and also known as Suryadeva Yajva, Suryadeva Somasut and Suryadeva Dikshita (c.1191- 1260 CE). It says he was born on Monday, 3rd that of the dark half of Magha, Saka 1113 ( 1191 CE). He was a resident of Gangaikonda Cholapuram and thus, evidently patronized by the Chola Kings. Rajendra Chola (1012-1044) founded the city to commemorate his victory over Ganges campaign. Somadeva Yajva"s forefathers had been with the Cholas and he became the Royal Astronomer and the chief of the Astronomical Colleges (Vidhyalayas) in the Chola territories interacting with others. This all of sudden could not have come into existence. Referring to Post-Sangam literature, we come across Civaga Cintamani mentioning existence of Colleges. It is very interesting and significant to note that the well-established educational system in the Tamizhagam during 9th-10th centuries.

Somadeva Yajvan has written commentaries on the following works:

* Aryabhatiya of aryabhata (c.500).

* Mahayatra of Varahamihira (c.500)

* Laghumanasa of Majula (c.932).

* Jataka-paddhathi of Sripati (c.1039)

His commentary on Sripati proves that the Indian astronomers were in touch with each other discussing on the subject matter dealt with. Suryadeva or their disciples must have accompanied with Rajendra during his overseas campaigns. Thus, during the Chola period, the knowledge of geography accompanied with cartography must have been there, as otherwise, Rajendra chola’s navy could not have navigated and directed his ships exactly going to the respective countries, carried the campaign by landing on the shores respective cities of the countries after anchoring. Cholas used small boats to reach the shores. After campaign, they came back to their ship and started sailing after de-anchoring. This proves that Cholas were having maps of India accompanied with the South East countries. It seems that during chola period , even the traders and businessmen, will also be trained warriors and good navigators with the knowledge of shipping, astronomy, geography and oceanography.

Civaga Cintamani mentions about the existence of “books on the knowledge of Oceans", which is very significant in the context. It covers all aspects of Ships, ship building etc.,it mentions that the sailors should be capable of handling all eventualities considering the dangers involved in ocean-trade including , tempest, piracy etc.

The Astronomical link among the S E Asian countries and India.

.. The movement of Cholas, particularly, Somadeva Yajvan with Rajendra’s navy to S E Asian countries could be a source for the spread of astronomical knowledge .

Hindu tradition makes mention of the conjunction of the “seven planets” (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury, sun and moon) and Ketu (southern lunar node, the northern node/ Rahu being by definition in the opposite location) near the fixed star Revati (Zeta Piscium) on 18 February 3102 BC. This date, at which lord Krishna is supposed to have left this world, is conventionally believed to be the start of the Kali-Yuga, calculation of planetary positions is a highly complex affair requiring good knowledge of a number of physical laws, universal constants and actual measurements of densities, diameters and distances. Indian astronomy was remarkably sophisticated that it could calculate the planetary positions with precision. These were arranged in the form of astronomical tables. One such astronomical table to find out the planetary movements was trivalore astronomical table In the later centuries Jesuits from Cochin , Goa moved to China and then to S E Asian countries and back to Pondicherry, Tranqubar etc., collected the trivalore astronomical table along with all scientific and technical manuscripts, tables, charts and materials related to shipping and ship building and transported them to Europe. The Tiruvalore astronomical table created a great storm in the medieval Europe making the mathematicians, astronomers and scientists to study them since tables had accurate calculations starting from the first day of Kaliyuga that started coinciding with a planetary conjunction or alignment that occurred on 18 feb 3102 BCE ( the first day of kaliyuga)

Indians used to write books on Palm-leaves, particularly, in South India. They used different scripts to Sanskrit and Tamil languages on various subjects. Most of the original Sanskrit books are missing, as the arabs and European missionaries have taken them away and after taking notes have destroyed the originals

However fragments of translated ‘kappal sattiram ‘ was found with the Danish sea farers. Most of the verses have been written with defective words, language and grammar, it is evident that the Danish must have engaged poor scribes to write this work.

Details found in fragments of Kappal Sattiram

Kappal Sattiram – Science and Technology of Ships and Shipping deals with many aspects shipping and ship building technology. It also mentions about the Mathematics involving points / dots . it must have been connected with Cartography making points on the maps drawn, developed, corrected and modified. In those days, maps could have been produced only after undertaking any voyages. Ironically, such projection in navigation charts used is known as the Mercator, named after the Flemish mathematician and geographer Gerardus Mercator (1512-94), who reportedly devised it. But it is evident that they must have known from Indians, as existence of such method is mentioned here. At what circumstances the destruction of a ship with cargo would occur is mentioned. At what circumstances the ship would return successfully with earned profits after selling the goods aboard is also given. These two exigencies have been given in astrological interpretation involving astronomical observation. The Tamils must have found out the arrival of Arab and European vessels to S E Asian countries at a particular time, as their starting with winds from their destinations had been different from that of Indians. However, they tried to coincide with the timings of Indians with an intention to compete initially and then seize cargo by piracy realizing their law-abiding nature. Moreover, the cunning Arabs and Europeans must have used Indian flags, symbols, dress etc., to cheat the Indians to complete their piracy. Persons with two eyes and one eye are compared figuratively with Sun and Moon. Danger to cargo would come from the persons with one eye , as they stealthily attack other vessels without following any marine-ethics or Maritime regulations. This is clear indication that Tamils knew of the nature of pirates, who were not Indians, as they were not following the Indian ethics of not attacking the vessels of others. Incidentally, the western depiction of standard pirates has been “one-eyed"! Interestingly, another point implied is about the persons with “Surya dhristi", “Chandra dhristi", “Raja dhristi", Griha dhristi", “Rakka dhristi" etc. They were nothing but persons with eye-sight of Moon, Sun, King, Planets, sides etc. in other words, the ocean going ships had such experts / observers of Solar, lunar, planetary motions and time calculations. As they had to visit different countries, they had to know about the Kings of such countries, thus the experts of Kings. And there were experts in observing directions also, as it is important in navigation. As such things couldnot have been possible without past experience, it is evident that the experts mentioned must have had books on such subject matter.

The text also gives statistical details of planets, asterisms, stars etc.

The measurements for masts and anchors are given.

.

Though the details of Indian shipping, the astronomical documents, instruments and maps are also surprisingly missing, though, usage of them were there, as there couldn’t be a naval expedition without them. However we have corrabrative evidences like inscriptions, writings of foreign travelers, ballads and tales, art and architecture.

Rajendra chola’s overseas conquests

Great tamil writer Amarar kalki in his magnum opus ‘ponniyin selvan’ says the land stretching from south of china to java was divided into many kingdoms like arumananadu, khamboja desham, manakkavaram ,talaitakkolam, mappalam, mayurudingam, lankashokam, tamiralingam, and lamuri desham. All these kingdoms were under the suzerainty of the powerful Sri vijaya empire. Srivijaya empire was located near Palembang in Sumatra.. Kadaram ( present day kedah in Malaysia) was the capital of srivijaya empire.it was a powerful maritime empire at the time and it was ruled by sailendra dynasty.Sangarama Vijayatungavarman was the son of Mara Vijayatungavarman was the king of srivijiya during Rajendra chola’s period. The Sailendra dynasty had been in good relations with the Chola Empire during the period of Rajaraja Chola . Rajaraja encouraged Mara Vijayatungavarman to build the Chudamani Viharam at Nagapattinam. kalki in his ‘pooniyin selvan‘explains in detail about this chudamani viharam at Nagapattinam. Rajendra confirmed this grant in the Anaimangalam grants( also called as leydan grants since they are preserved in leydan museum in Holland) showing that the relationship with Srivijaya was still continued be friendly. Srivijaya empire and the South Indian empires were the intermediaries in the trade between China and the arabs. Both the Srivijaya and Cholas had active dialogue with the Chinese and sent diplomatic missions to China.

The Chinese records of the Song Dynasty show that first mission to China from Chu-lien (Chola) reached that country in 1015 CE and the king of their country was Lo-ts’a-lo-ts’a (Rajaraja). Another embassy from Shi-lo-cha Yin-to-loChu-lo (Sri Raja Indra Chola) reached China in 1033 CE and a third in 1077 CE during Kulothunga Chola I. The commercial intercourse between Cholas and the Chinese were continuous and extensive.The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval and the license from the customs force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade. The normal trade voyage of those days involved atleast three voyages, starting with the Indian goods (mainly spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China and in the return direction the Chinese goods (silk, incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. The close diplomatic tie between the Song dynasty of China and Cholas facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways.

Piracy in Southeast Asia

The Strategic position of Sri Vijaya and Khamboja (modern day Cambodia) as a mid-point in the trade route between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Realizing their strategic location the Sri Vijaya empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the strait of mallacca and adjoining areas. The benefits were twofold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties. Piracy also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya,The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the considerable loss on every voyage. Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy,had little effect. With the rise in piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses for their cavalry began to demand high prices for their trade. This affected the Chola army and the Chinese were also affected by the piracy menace, as they too were losing revenue.The culmination of centuries of combined naval traditions of tamils led to the most known accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter),the expedition of the Chola navy into the Malay peninsula.

In c1025 , the Chola Navy crossed the bay of bengal from kodiakarai ,Nagapattinam and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. Chola navy consisted of able and experienced military generals like Senapati Narkkana Sri Krishnan Raman aka Rajendra-Chola-Brahmamarayan of Keralantaka Chaturvedimangalam , Irayiravan Pallavaraiyan who also served during the reign of Rajaraja and .Narkanna Jananathan, the son of Krishnan Raman,

Manakkavaram(in the tip of nocobar islands) acted as a intermediary garrison port for the cholasThe cholas followed the tactic of anchoring ships well before the land and sailing in small boats to attack kadaram. so that the incoming warriors from the ships land and enter into cities so that the conquest is complete Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present day Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malayan peninsula were also attacked. Kadaram, the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom, was sacked and the king taken captive. He was captured and his city seized; his treasure the (Vidyadhara) `taranam' at the Gate of his city and two other doors with jewels were carried off'. Rajendra Chola extended his trade protectorates to Madamalingam ( Jaya in the Malaya Peninsula), Mappapalam `defended by the water'. Talai-Takkolam on the isthmus of Kra, Panna watered by the river on the east coast of Sumatra, Mayirvdingam by the sea a state dependent on Palembang,langashokam (Langasuka) . Ilamurideram (Lamuri) in the far north of Sumatra and many other places in malay peninsula.The king Sangrama Vijayattounga who styled himself as King of the Ocean Lands, was short circuited by Rajendra chola’s expedition where he was captured and lost his kingdom of Sri Vijaya. The campaign led to acceptance of the Chola suzerainty by Srivijaya. Sangaram Vijayatungavarman was restored to the throne at his agreement to pay periodic tribute to Rajendra. Even today there are ballads in malay peninsula which tell how the king Raja Chaim , destroyed Ganganagara on the Dinding river, as well as a fort on the Lengiu, a tributary of the Johora River, and finally occupied Turnasik, the site of the future Singapore'.. Ruins of Navagraha temple of chola period can be found atop of a hill adjoining kedah even today. It seems that navagraha temple also acted as light house for mariners .Kadaram became a trade post of cholas and until next century till the reign of kulothunga chola there was an active interaction with srivijaya.

Regarding kadaram expedition the chola inscription says

‘

In the 22nd year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who,-..conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi..etc.-

and who-having sent many ships in the midst of the billowing sea and having [captured] Sangirama-vijaiyattungopanma, the king of Kidaram, along with his elephants..,took [the large heap of treasures that he had rightfully amassed], the Vichchadira-ttorana at the war-gate of the enemy's extensive city, the wicket door set with jewels of great splendour, and the door set with large jewels;the extensive sri-Vijaiyam; Pannai watered by the river; the ancient Malaiyur, whose fortress was on a high hill; Māyirudingam, the moat around which was the deep sea; Ilangāsōbam, of undaunted heroic deeds; Māppappālam, having abundant waters as it guard; Mēvilambangam, which had fine fortifications as its defence; Valaippandūru, situated in the midst of green jungles; Talaittakolam, praised by great men versed in the sciences; Madamalingam, of steady heroic deeds; Nilamuri-desam, whose fierce strength was increased by enmity; Mānakkavāram having gardens, in which the flowers were full of honey; and Kidaram, of fierce strength, guarded by men who wore ankle-rings

Rajendra’s territories now included coastal burma (Myanmar), the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, maldives, Srivijaya (sumatra, Java and malayasia in S.E. Asia) and Pegu Islands.Finally the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya king (as per his request)to ensure cooperation in curbing piracy.Remains of a number of Hindu Temples (with Tamil Dravidian architecture)have been discovered around various parts of S.E.Asia attesting to the presence of the chola army. Tanjavur inscriptions also state that the king of Kambhoja (Kampuchea) requesting Rajendra’s help in defeating enemies of his Angkor kingdom . Chola armies also exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia , Brunei, Fiji , parts of Islands of Australia and Vietnam.

Thus the imperial chola army along with the efforts of chola navy which started their voyage from the banks of R.Cauvery reached the banks of R.Mekong in their long march.

.

After all these successful campaigns Rajendra Chola I earned the famous title of Poorvadesamum, Gangaiyum Kadaramum Konda Ayyan. He was also called Gangaikonda Chola and other famous titles like Mudigondasozhan, Irattapadikonda Sozhan among scores of other titles

Closing years

Rajendra’s long reign saw almost continuous campaigns and conflicts trying to hold his huge empire together. Rajendra’s sons carried out most of the campaigns during the late period of his reign. The emperor refrained from taking the field personally allowing his sons to win glory and distinction.Rebellions in the Pandya and Kerala countries called for severe action and Rajadhiraja Chola I suppressed them. He also undertook a campaign in Sri Lanka to quell a rebellion instigated by Kassapa.

Rajendra Chola was very pious and he converted many of the temples that were originally brick structures into stone shrines.. He built a huge Siva Temple in Gangaikondacholapuram and consecrated. Soon after this, the capital was moved from Thanjavur to Gangaikondacholapuram. Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram before his 17th reignal year.Most of the Chola kings who succeeded Rajendra were crowned here. They retained it as their capital, reoriented and trained the efficient Chola army.

Rajendra’s legacy

The closing years of Rajendra forms the most splendid period of Cholas. The extent of the empire was the widest and the military and naval prestige was at its highest. The emperor was ably assisted by his sons and other members of his family. The Chola imperialism was a benevolent one attested by the presence of the traditional rulers in the Pandya and Kerala countries and the act of reinstating the Srivijaya king even after his defeat.

Successors of Rajendra Chola

Rajendra Chola was active for about thirty-two years in expanding the Chola Empire. He had kept the prestige of Chola dynasty intact which was acquired during the previous reign. His titles like Mudikonda, Gangaikonda, Kadarangonda and Pandita Chola epitomise his greatness. His three sons, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, and Virarajendra I ascended the throne in consecutively, and his daughter, Ammangadevi, was the queen of Rajaraja I of Vengi and mother of Kulottunga chola.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions in this subject by doyen among historians, K.A.Nilkanta sastri without whose pioneering books‘ The Colas” and ‘ The history of South india’ , the present day protagonists of tamil language including many ‘thalivars” would have virtually known nothing about the glorious tamil culture which they are proud of.

Eminent historian R. C. Majumdar after discussing the “struggle between the Sailendras and the Cholas", long back pointed out, “That the story of this victory is not merely an imagination of the court-poets, but based on facts, is proved, beyond doubt, by the detailed references to the vassal states. It is interesting to note that many of these States are included in the Sailendra Empire by later Chinese authorities".

In spite of being a emperor of whole of S E Asia , we find only a modest statue of him in gangai konda cholapuram temple.. In this statue Rajendrachola is depicted as worshipping the feet of Lord Shiva and Parvati It enhances the greatness of the emperor’s personality.

Rajendra chola cannot be dismissed as a foot note in Indian history. He can only be compared to Samudra gupta ,Alexander the great , and Napoleon Bonaparte. It is high time that his rightful and well deserved place in Indian history is accorded to him.

I am eagar the receive your opinions. Thank you .

A VOYAGE FROM CAUVERY TO MEKONG-- LIFE AND TIMES OF SRI RAJENDRA CHOLA --PART 1

2

A VOYAGE FROM CAUVERY TO MEKONG- LIFE AND TIMES OF
SRI RAJENDRA CHOLA – PART I





What are all the steps ,a modern statesman can take for his nation’s progress?

He can strengthen his borders and make it secure so that he can peacefully concentrate on development activities.
He can send trade delegations to foreign countries for developing trade.
He can provide security to this trade delegations so that there will be safe passage of goods in transit.
Through this measure he can increase per capita income and GDP.
He can strengthen his bureaucratic machinery, so that there will be a balanced development across the economic ladder to all sections of society.

Well , all these measures seems to be difficult even in this modern era isn’t it.
But a thousand years before when most of the Europeans were uncivilized an emperor from south of India did all this apart from extending his empire from south india to Orissa, Bengal , and upto S E Asia. He was RAJENDRA CHOLA, the greatest of all chola monarchs and the most illustrious son of the great chola monarch Rajaraja chola. It is really surprising to know that Cholas maintained strongest navy of the contemporary world and the bay of Bengal was converted into ‘chola lake’.
If you happen to go through any standard text book of Indian history you will find only four sentences mentioning the chola empire which ruled southindia and srilanka for more than 300 years, where as you will find the detailed description of some sultans’ rule whose ‘empire ‘would not have extended beyond the national capital territory of delhi. it is quite strange isn’t it.

Rajendra`s reign marked the pinnacle of glory of the dynasty of the Cholas. His power was nonparallel. During the final years of Rajendra the Chola Empire was the widest with the navy and army reputation at its peak. Perhaps it was one of the biggest and powerful empire of the Asian continent and contemporary world.

Of late, some researchers have started throwing doubt on the overseas expeditions of Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola on the plea that the Parasasti / Meikkirti could have been written with poetic fantasy and exaggerations rather than the factual accuracy. These researchers argue that even, had Rajendra Chola had gone overseas it could have been only a raid to loot and not to set foot as a conqueror!

Some historians declare that the chola state during the period of Rajaraja and Rajendra chola are segmentary states. In “segmentary states", the state"s functions were custodial rather than regulative, ritualistic rather than managerial. Thus these historians argue that Cholas resorted to the policy of “plunder and piety" . Rajaraja and Rajendra too fulfilled their charitable obligations in an extravagant way, aggressively acquiring booty only to donate more lavishly to temples and Brahmins. In such an attempt, the Thanjavur inscriptional details of Cholas expedition to South East Asian Countries are dubbed as mere rhetoric. Though, non-Indian researchers point out the maritime activities, international trade, import and export of goods, movement of people-groups with religious beliefs (especially buddihists) etc., their studies have been restricted to Chinese, Arabic and European exploits with passing reference to Indians and Cholas.

Accepting the fact of Indian goods, people, their religion, temple-building technology etc., going there, but doubting their mode of travel appears illogical and unhistorical. Therefore, a critical analysis is required to find out

(i) Whether there are any corroborative evidences for the conquests claimed by inscriptions or whether they are mere poetic exaggerations.
(ii) Whether the shipping, shipbuilding and naval capabilities of the Cholas are true and Whether Naval battles were fought or not.

To find out answers we have have to analyse the life and times of
Sri Rajendra Chola I

Rajendra chola’s year of birth is surrounded with mystry. Thirvalangadu inscriptions talks about vanavan madeviyar, one of the queens of the great Raja raja chola. Probably she was mother of Rajendra chola. the inscrption is not dated and hence the year of birth of Rajendra chola is not known.The great tamil writer amarar Kalki , in his magnum opus Ponniyin selvan (the historical fiction penned with the members of the royal Chola family in lead) talks about one vanathidevi, princess of kodambalur being the mother of Rajendra chola. Not much is known about early years of rajendra chola.

Rajendra Chola became the crown prince in 1012 AD. Both father and son equally ruled the Chola Empire during the final few years of Rajaraja chola. This practice of choosing a successor and discharging administrative duties was an unique feature of the Chola administration and was done to avoid disputes regarding succession. The princes who had come of age had been appointed in various positions of authority in the different provinces of the empire according to the individual’s to aptitude and talent. Those who distinguished themselves in those positions could be chosen as sucessor. In some cases, a more talented younger could win the nod over the eldest son.Hence unlike many other medieval dynasties we don’t find any succession battles in chola dynasty.

The famous Tiruvalangadu inscription consists of all his military achievements and other details too. It was in the year 1018 C.E in his 6th reignal \ year Rajendra Chola released the copper plates, which were found around 1903 from the Siva temple during renovation. 31 Copper plates were put on a copper ring
bearing the distinct Chola emblem, the majestic tiger. About 10 plates contain Sanskrit scripts and 21 contain Tamil.

Rajendra Chola became co-regent, as well as the Mahadandanayaka Panchavan Maharaya – supreme commander- of the northern and northwestern dominions during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. Rajaraja Chola I had made the crown prince Rajendra Co-Regent in 1012 C.E. Both Son and Father reigned as equals during the final few years of Rajaraja’s life. Rajendra lead from the forefront of some of Rajaraja’s campaigns, such as those against Vengi and Kalinga towards the end of Raja raja’s reign.. Rajendra Chola early in his life assisted his father in his military conquests of Kerala and the Western Chalukyas of Karnataka.


Rajendra formally ascended the Chola throne in 1014 C.E., two years after his installation as the Co-Regent. Early in his reign in 1018 C.E., he installed his eldest son, Rajadhiraja Chola I, as yuvaraja (Co-Regent). Rajadhiraja continued to rule beside his father for the next 26 years. According to chola tradtion the son ruled in as full regal status as the father .

Conquests of Rajendra Chola

On behalf of his father Rajendra had successful campaigns against the capital of the Rashtrakutas , manyakheta ( present day malkhaid) and region around the current northwestern present Karnataka state, southern Maharashtra up to Kolhapur ,Pandharpur. .Rajendra also led campaigns against the Western Chalukya Satyasraya and his successor Jayasimha-II by crossing the river Tungabhadra, carried the war into the heart of the Chalukya country and attacked their capital. He overran large parts of the Chalukyan territory including Yedatore(a large part of the Raichur district between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra), Banavasi in the north-west of karnataka before taking a tour of the capital Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta). Both the kings were forced to flee from their capital into the western ghats with the Chola emperor erecting a Siva temple at Bhatkal after completing his victory and levying tribute on the vanquished Chalukya kings. He also conquered Kollipakkai, modern day Kulpak located to the north of Hyderabad in present day Andhra Pradesh. Here is an excerpt of his inscription(original in Tamil) from Kolar, Karnataka:
“
In the 8th year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who,-
while the goddess of Fortune, having become constant, increased, and while the goddess of the great Earth, the goddess of Victory in battle and the matchless goddess of Fame, having become his great queens, rejoiced-that in his extended lifetime, conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi shut in by a fence of continuous forests; Kollipakkai, whose walls were surrounded by sulli trees; Mannaikkadakkam whose fortification was unapproachable;..
”
Invasion of Sri Lanka

Rajendra invaded the island of Sri Lanka in 1018 C .E to complete the task began by his father, (for many reasons Raja Raja Chola I was able to conquer only half of the Sri Lanka in his time) of conquering the island of Srilanka, Rajendra invaded the island in 1018 CE As a result of the campaign, Rajendra claimed to have captured the regal jewels of the Pandya kings( kalki in his ponniyin selvan talks about this manimalai which was supposed to be royal jewel of pandyan kings kept in srilanka), which Parantaka I tried in vain to capture. Rajendra also captured the crown of the Sinhala king, The Sinhala king Mahinda V was taken prisoner and transported to the Chola country, Mahavamsa ( the chronicle of sinhalse kings) records indicates that Chola invasion and conquest of Lanka as a carnage wrought by the pillaging Chola army in the Sinhala country.Chola inscriptions speak about the fight between the Cholas and the Sinhalase was mainly due to the fact that the traders from Tamil country had been looted, imprisoned and killed for years together, in return for which the Cholas sent their army to invade, occupy and control the island of Sri Lanka. An excerpt of his inscription from Kolar, Karnataka:
“
In the 8th year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who-..conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi..etc.-
..the crown of the king of Ilam(Ceylon), and the more beautiful crown of his queen; the beautiful crown and the necklace of Indra, which the king of the south (the Pandya) had previously surrendered to the kings of Ilam; the whole of Iramandalam surrounded by the clear sea;..
”

Mahinda’s son Kassapa became the centre of Sihalese resistance against the Tamil Power. The war between the Cholas and the Sinhalese raged. The Cholas prevailed over the Sinhalas and re-established their control which lasted till the time of Kulothunga Chola III.

Remains of a number of Hindu temples damaged by the Sinhalas after the end of Tamil occupation in Sri Lanka have been discovered around the Polonnaruwa area attesting to the presence of the Tamil army.

In 1041 CE Rajendra had to lead another expedition into Sri Lanka to quell the continuing attacks against the Chola army by Vikramabahu. Vikramabahu died soon after and anarchy reigned outside the Chola territories. An assortment of adventurers including Sinhalese, dispossessed Pandya princes and even a certain Jagaitpala from distance Kanauj asserted authority over portions of the island. Chola army fought and defeated them all. Thus, Rajendra Chola was able to fulfill his father's dream to bring the whole Sri Lanka under Chola territory.

Pandyas and Cheras

In 1018 C.E , Rajendra made a triumphal march at the head of his army through the Pandya and Cheras (Kerala) countries. Rajendra’s Tiruvalangadu grants claim that he …’took possession of the bright spotless pearls, seeds of the fame of the Pandya kings’ and that ‘…the fearless Madurantaka (Rajendra) crossed the mountains and in a fierce battle brought ruin upon the Chera kings.
Rajendra appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title Jadavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya with Madurai as the headquarters of the Viceroyalty.

Chalukya Wars

C. E 1021 Rajendra had to turn his attention towards the Western Chalukyas. In 1015 C.E Jayasimha II became the Western Chalukya king. Soon after his accession he tried to recover the losses suffered by his predecessor Satyasraya in the hands of the Cholas, who has fled his capital, unable to withstand the Chola onslaught, but had been graciously restored to the throne by Raja Raja I and became a tribute paying subordinate. Initially Jayasimha II was successful as Rajendra was busy with his campaigns against the Pandyas and in Sri Lanka.

Jayasimha also decided to involve himself in the affairs of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. After the demise of the Vengi king Vimaladitya, Jayasimha threw his support behind Vijayaditya VII against the claims of Rajaraja Narendra, another of Vimaladitya’s sons by the Chola princess Kundavai. Rajendra naturally had his affinity towards Rajaraja, his nephew (for Kundavai was Rajendra’s sister). A civil war ensued between Vijayaditya and Rajaraja. However with the help of Rejendra, Rajraja Narendra was soon able to defeat the forces of Vijayaditya

Rajendra followed the same tactic adopted by his illustrious father of sending two armies, one to Vengi and the other to the Chalukyan capital itself. Rajendra’s forces met Jayasimha in the western front and defeated him in the battle of Maski. Rajendra's forces also crossed swords with the Chalukyas at Kollippakkai near Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta), the capital of Jayasimha-II. Many of Jayasimha-II's generals, called Mahasamantas and Dandanayakas paid with their lives for the intransigence of their inept king, as described in the Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra I. Rajendra routed Jayasimha thoroughly with the result the Chalukya king ran away from his capital and was forced to flee and rule from distant Etagiri. This war is extensively described in the inscriptions of Rajendra Chola I at the Raja Rajesvara Temple, Thanjavur.Rajaraja Narendra had his coronation in Vengi after the return of the triumphant expedition to the Ganges in 1022 CE and Rajendra gave his daughter Ammangadeviin marriage to Rajaraja.

In 1031 CE, the Western Chalukyas invaded Vengi and drove Rajaraja Narendra into exile and installed Vijayaditya as the Vengi king. Rajaraja once again sought Chola help in regaining his throne. Rajendra Chola deputed his able son Rajadhiraja I as head of the Chola army which invaded the Vengi and in a bloody battle near Kalidandi, pushed back Vijayaditya and his Western Chalukya ally. Rajaraja Narendra regained his throne in 1035 CE

Due to his consistent and complete vanquishing of the Chalukyas under Satyashraya and Jayasimha-II along with their feudatories, the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Banas, Vaidumbas and the Gangas etc. and the establishment of control over Kannada country, Rajendra I had famous titles like Mudikonda Chozhan (crown prince), 'Jayasimha Saraban' (the vanquisher of Jayasimha), Mannaikonda Sozhan (the King who took possession of Mannai(kadakkam) i.e. Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta - called Mannaikadakkam in Chola annals), Irattapadikonda Sozhan (the king who conquered Irattapadi or the land of the Rashtrakutas (later usurped by the Chalukyas), Nirupathivaagaran (the king who subdued Hoysala Nrupathunga and his successors).

A few years before his death, Rajendra Chola again invaded the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta due to Chalukya Jayasimha-II and his successor Somesvara I's interference in the Chola territories by forcibly collecting revenues from farmers. A Chola outpost was attacked leading to a resounding reply by the Chola forces first under Rajendra I, following which the command was taken by his able son and co-regent Rajadhiraja Chola (called Vijayarajendra in Tamil inscriptions). This was the first full-fledged war between the Cholas and Chalukyas in which Rajadhiraja Chola took the command of the Chola army in which he shone and proved his capabilities.This subjugation of the Chalukyas would intensify conflict between both empires with the Chalukyas to suffer more defeats at the hands of the successors of Rajendra I in the coming years. The victories in war with the Chalukyas would enable to Cholas to gain much riches, gold, jewellery, cavalry items like horses, elephants and armaments in addition to vast sums of cash which were ceded by the Chalukya kings as tribute to the Chola emperors, who graciously restored them their empires .

Despite founding the new Chola capital of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Rajendra I was modest by according respect to his predecessor's achievements, especially those of his illustrious father Raja Raja I by placing inscriptions of his achievements only at the Big Temple in Thanjavur and not at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. This practice was kept up by the succeeding Chola kings,


Expedition to the Ganges

With both the Western and Eastern Chalukya fronts subdued, Rajendra’s armies undertook an extraordinary expedition. In 1019 CE Rajendra’s forces continued to march through Kalinga to the river Ganges. The Emperor himself advanced up to the river Godavari . The Chola army eventually reached the Pala kingdom of Bengal where they met Mahipala and defeated him.

According to the Tiruvalangadu Plates, the campaign lasted less than two years in which many kingdoms of the north felt the might of the Chola army. The inscriptions further claim that Rajendra defeated ‘…the armies of Ranasura and entered the land of Dharmapala and subdued him and thereby he reached the Ganges and caused the water river to be brought by the conquered kings’ back to the Chola country. The new conquests opened up new roots for the Cholas to head for distant lands like Burma by land (through modern Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and Bangladesh). Rajendra's army defeated the kings of Sakkarakottam and Dhandabhukti and Mahipala. These territories were initially added to the kingdom, while later they had the status of tribute paying subordinates and trade partners with the Chola Kingdom, an arrangement that lasted till the times of Kulothunga-III . It was undoubtedly an exhibition of the power and might of the Chola empire to the northern kingdoms. But the benevolent leadership of the Cholas treated them in a benevolent manner and did not permanently annexe them to the Chola

In the second part of this article let us analyse the highlight of Rajendra chola’s career i.e overseas conquests, the ship building capabilities of chola navy and their successful naval battles in Kadaram and Sri vijaya and other E.Asian countries.

GENESIS OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA

Brahmanasya Mukham aseed.Bahu rajanya krutha.
Ooru tadasys yad vaisya.Padbhyo sudro aajayatha.



This hymn is from Purusha suktham, the hymn of creation which is the part of Rigveda states that

Brahmin came into being from brahma’s face, rajanya (kshyatriya) from his arms,
Vaishya from his thighs and sudra from his feet.

There are 1028 hymns in Rigveda and incidentally the word ‘ sudra’ is mentioned only in this hymn. According to Rig Veda, Purush, the almighty himself manifested in different forms to create different strata of society. It is interesting to note that there is no category of ‘untouchables’ mentioned in rigveda.

In Srimad bhagwad gita which was rendered Lord Krishna himself, krishna clarifies to Arjuna the origin and purpose of the caste system in sanaatana dharma

(Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 4, Shloka 13).

cāturvarṇyaṃ mayā sṛṣṭaṃ guṇakarmavibhāgaśaḥ .
tasya kartāramapi māṃ viddhyakartāramavyayam ..


The four-fold order was created by Me according to the divisions of quality and work. Though I am its creator, know Me to be incapable of action or change.

Cāturvarṇyaṃ: the four-fold order. The four varnas are named - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. They constitute the four-fold order. The three gunas - satva, rajas and tamas - and the law of karma - these four elements were divided by Me to create the four varna.

So according to Bhagwad gita the emphasis is on guna (aptitude/ qualities) and karma (function) and not on jaati (birth). The varna or the order to which we belong is independent of sex, birth or breeding. A caste is determined by temperament and vocation - not by birth or heredity.

According to bhagwad gita the whole world was originally of one class but later it became divided into four divisions on account of the specific duties.



ekavarṇama idama pūrvaṃ viśvama āsida yudhiśthira karmakriyāviśesena caturvarṇyama pratiśthitama

Even the distinction between caste and outcaste is artificial and superfical.
In the Mahabharata, Yudhishthira says that it is difficult to find out the caste of persons on account of the mixture of castes. So conduct is the only determining feature of caste according to the sages.

Srimad Bhagvad gita also states that all existing things, animated and inanimated, inherent three gunas( qualities) in different apportionment. Satva guna qualities include wisdom, intelligence, spiritual bent of mind , goodness and other positive qualities. Rajo guna includes qualities like chivelry, pride, valour and other passionate qualities. Tamo guna qualities includes other materialistic qualities.

Accordingly Brahmins are suppose to posses predominantly Satva guna, Kshatrias and Vaisias predominantly Rajo guna , and Sudras predominantly Tamo guna . Srimad Bhagwad gita explains that food also inherents different dosage of these qualities and it affects its eater's qualities. Hence it recommends Brahmins and the Vaisyas to have Satvic diet which includes fruits, milk, honey, roots and vegetables. Most of the meats are considered to have Tamosic qualities and hence Sudras are prescribed to eat different kinds of meat (but not beef) . But for the Kshatriyas, the prescribed Rajasic diet includes some kinds of meat like deer meat, which is considered to have Rajasic qualities.
Hence valmiki in his ramyana says that rama. and lakshmana when they were in forests ate deer meat along with fruits and vegetables

The Verse 102 of 52nd Sarga of Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa in Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa says.

Tau tatra caturo mahāmṛgān varāham ṛ śyaṃ mahārurum z
Ādāya medhyaṃ tvaritaṃ bubhukṣitau vāsāya kāle yayaturvanasparitam zz


-Two Brothers ( Rāma and Laksmaṇa) after entering the area(the Vatsya Deśa), killed four beasts e.g. varāha, ṛṣ ā, pṛṣat and mahāruru and, as they were hungry, took the meat of those animals, and in the afternoon they took rest under a tree
(tr. By Tarakanta Kavyatirtha, Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa,

In different parts of India the same food was sometimes qualified to have different dosage of inherent qualities. This is mainly due to climatic conditions prevailing in that area. For example there are Brahmins who eat fish which is considered Tamasic food. This was taken as exceptions.








Accordingly in early india though born in the same family, people with different doses of these inherent gunas took different occupations. We can give innumerable examples that brahminhood is a virtue and not reckoned at birth. Sage valmiki who composed the great epic Ramayana was from a hunter family. Sage Viswamitra was a kshatriya by birth but was regarded as one of a brahma rishis(highest form of rishis) . Sage parshara who was a famous law giver was born to a maid servant.
Sage veda vyasa who was the composor of mahabharta with 1.20 lakh slokas was born to sage parashara and fisherwomen by name sathyavati. Vidura who was chief counselor to king dhirthrastra and who was considered as a greatest thinker of his times was son of an ordinary domestic help. There is a medieval myth that women are not allowed to study and recite Vedas. But we can find outstanding women like gargi and maitryee who composed Upanishads. We can also find people who are born in Brahmin families took professions meant for other varnas. Dronacharya, krupacharya and aswathama were all great warriors and took the professions of kshatriyas. Many Brahmins were ministers, counselors to kings and were also actively participated in trade .Hence in early india , just being born in a Brahmin family doesnot qualify a person to be called as a brahmin. It is only in this context brahma sutra states that only a Brahmin can study and recite Vedas.

Here it is worthwhile to mention the story of a great rishi by name sathyakama jabala.
Sathyakama in his adolescent age approaches guru gautama and requests gautama to take him as his disciple. Gautama asks his name and his father’s name and family lineage. To this young sathyakama replies that his name is sathyakama ,his mother’s name is jabala and he doesn’t know his family lineage. The other sishyas of gautama thought that their guru will never accept sathyakama. But to their astonishment gautama told sathyakama , since you have spoken truth abour your antecedents you are a BRAHIMIN. Gautama accepted sathyakama as his disciple and gave him a new name as sathyakama jabala. , jabala being his mother’s name as his second name. (in early India this was quite common…for eg arjuna was addressed as kaunteya ..son of kunti) sathyakama jabala went on to become a great rishi and composed an upanishad.


Thus in early India caste was not determined by birth but only by one’s occupation.
But with the passage of time the caste system became water tight.
The idea of identifying caste through one’s profession became defunct .Slowly the people organized themselves into three major caste groups. The first group was of the hereditary warriors and they called themselves as Kshatriyas. The second group was of the hereditary priests and they called themselves as Brahmins. The third group was of the hereditary farmers and hereditary craftsmen and they called themselves as Vaishyas . The son started to inherit his father's profession .
Even to day it is not totally uncommon to see children taking their father’s profession. We see children of doctors becoming doctors , children of actors become actors and children of politicians become politicians( dynastic politics!!)
What we see today is the replica of what happened in the later years of early India.
The communities who are not included in any of the three groups were called as sudras.

Those were the days when India was situated in centre of the famous silk route which passed from china to west asia. Due to increase in the volume of trade , the craftsmen and traders became rich landlords of the society. In order to secure their status these major caste groups resolved some social and religious rules which allowed only them to be the priests, warriors and the businessmen of the society. Now the skin color was an important factor in the caste system.
Contrary to the meaning given in Srimad Bhagwad gita the meaning of the word Varna" started indicating skin color. The upper castes wanted to keep their privileges intact and wanted to pass on these benefits to their offsprings. So these developed families, professed the same family profession for generations through which, the son continued his father's profession entered into matrimonial relationship only among themselves. Later on as these families became larger and they were seen as communities or sub castes Different subcastes organized themselves as one caste. Interestingly the foreign invaders of ancient India - Greeks, Huns, Scythains and others - who conquered parts of India and created kingdoms were integrated into the Kshatriya fold.

The ensuing period saw the growth of rigid caste system with the new concept of ‘untouchables’.Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated into Sudra caste. And communities who professed polluting professions were made outcastes or untouchables. The so called upper castes believed that diseases can also spread also through air and not only through physical touch. Perhaps because of this reason the untouchables were not only disallowed to touch the high caste communities but they also had to stand at a certain distance from the high castes.
They were allowed to settle only outside the village limits and upper castes had limited social relations with these communities. These middle ages saw the caste system grow more rigid and water tight which made the life difficult for lower castes
Inspite of this handicap we find many people from lower castes who excel in their chosen fields. Thirukacchi nimbi, One of the gurus of the great 12th century philosopher shri. Ramanuja was not a Brahmin. Many of the nayanamars and alwars were non Brahmins.


Thus caste system which identified professions in early India , in the later ages became water tight and is now identifies family lineage.
It has become as a curse to the society and hampering the nation’s progress.

vedic saraswati

indian history in the cross roads.......
indian historians are faced with an enigmatic question.....
did saraswati river really existed?
if so when did it become extinct?
what about harappan people?
who are aryans?
did they migrate or aryans and the harappans are same?
what was their period?
who was sandro cottus refered by megesthesnes?
what was the period of guptas?
what was the age of adi shankara?
all puzzles will get solved...... by answering.... the question....did saraswati river exist?
i welcome esteemed comments....