A VOYAGE FROM CAUVERY TO MEKONG-- LIFE AND TIMES OF SHRI RAJENDRA CHOLA PART 2

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In the first part of this article we have analyzed the different military campaigns of Sri Rajendra Chola in India. In this part let us analyze the highlight of Rajendra chola’s career i.e overseas conquests,

A detailed account of overseas expeditions undertaken by Rajaraja chola and Rajendra chola has been recorded in the chola inscriptions as “Meikirti",

The concept of overseas expedition and conquering land across the seas are linked with Naval battles.Ship building and sailing techniques is an integral part of a naval battles. So we have to analyze the ship building capabilities of chola navy and we have to corroborate various evidences to find out whether naval battles were fought or not?

To prove the maritime adventures of cholas and also to find out the details of chola navy and naval battles, the following evidences can be analysed.

1.‘Ship-type’ Coins

2.Revenue System

3.Arabs reference to Cholas

4.Inscriptions found in the S E Asian Countries and China

5. Local literature of S E Asia

6.Astronomy during chola period

Cholas did not develop navy overnight. Right from the sangam age ( early years of common era) the tamils have been sea faring people. All the three kingdoms of ancient tamilagam the Cheras. Cholas and Pandyas had actively participated in sea trade through their ports such as poompuhar , korkai, muziri etc. We can find out a plenty of literary evidences for sea merchandise in sangam poetry.This has been corroborated by unearthing of roman settlements which belong to the early years of common era in puhar and korkai. . Roman coins which belong to the age of augstus ceasar have also been unearthed in korkai and down south in R. vaigai basin. We have numismatic evidence too to prove this sea merchandise.

1.Ship type coins

The introduction of ‘ship-type coins’ has been attributed to the Sathavahanas, who were ruling the south during c.200 BCE onwards, just touching the northern boundaries of the Tamils of the Sangam period .The Salankayanas and Pallavas have also issued similar coins proving that they too had seafaring abilities. Chola coins of the period depict stars, fish prominently indicating maritime activity.

2.Revenue System proves the Maritime activities of Cholas:

The Revenue system of the Cholas interestingly talks about duty on imported goods into their territories. The South Indian Inscriptions have given details about it. It is unique in the sense that the levy was imposed based on the type of the vessel in which the goods were imported or imported goods brought in instead of the goods imported. Thus, the levy is mentioned for the following:

Marakkalam = Ship

Patahu = Boat

Kalavam = Raft

3.Arabs reference to Cholas

Arabs mention about Cholas and their Kappal Sattiram (the science of ships) and Navai Sattram (The Technology of Shipbuilding) These literatures have included geographical tables with indications of the latitudes of ports for use of the mariners of the Coromandal coast. Of this technical literature mentioned by Arab writers, unfortunately no part has survived. It seems that Arabs destroyed the Indian originals and circulated their version as their own without any acknowledgement to Indians. And there was no respect for intellectual honesty or intellectual property, rights and so on, which we talk about nowadays!

4.Inscriptions found in the S E Asian Countries and China:

Significantly, inscriptions are found not only in Tamil and Tamil bilingual (Tamil with Sanskrit,) but also in S E Asian languages like Thai, old malay and also in Chinese have been found in S E Asian Countries and Eastern China respectively.

(i) Khau-Pra-Narai (Bra Narayana), about ten miles upstream on the Takuapa river, on the west coast of peninsular Thailand.

The Pallava Grantha and entirely in Tamil.

870 CE.

(ii) Loho Tuwa, just to the north of Barus on the west of the island of Sumatra.

Tamil in the Kawi script of Java.

1010 Saka era (1088 CE)

(iii) Neusu Aceh, North Sumatra

12th century CE

it deals with trading regulations among the exporters.

(iv) Batu Bapahat, west Sumatra

Tamil in the Javanese influenced central Sumatran script

13th century CE

(v)Porlak dolok, north Sumatra

Tamil and Old Malay / Javanese language.

13th cent.CE

(vi)Nkhom Si Thammarat Thailand

Tamil-Sanskrit, bilingual.

1261 CE

(vi)Pagan, Burma

13th cent.CE

(vii)Quanzhou, Eastern China

Tamil in Tamil-Chinese language.

13th cent.CE

5. Local literature of S E Asia

Local literarature of S E Asia points out that Cholas knew S E Asia more than the Arabs, S E Asian literatures mention about Coliya, Pandia, Meliyala and Tekang, thus clearly referring to Chola, Pandya, Malayala and the Deccan. one text by name Nagarakritagama is an old-Javanese literary work (dated to 1365). The text was discovered from Bali in 1894, translated and published later. In this work, the Colas are designated as Coda or Gauda. It mentions the places, which were raided by the soldiers of Rajendra Cola as Kampar, Kampe, Haru, Parlak, Samudra etc., . The local stories, particularly, the story of Manimekhalai shows similarity. Of course, the art and architecture prove the Indian influence.

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Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian architectural influences.[

6.The Astronomy of Chola Period:

The Shipping, navigation and astronomy go together. Rajaraja encouraged astronomy and there was vidhyalyas ( astronomical Colleges )exclusively at important cities like Madurai, Tanjai and Trichirappalli . Gangapuri a work of chola period mentions about an an astronomer hailing from Gagnaikonda Cholapuram, His name was Suryadeva and also known as Suryadeva Yajva, Suryadeva Somasut and Suryadeva Dikshita (c.1191- 1260 CE). It says he was born on Monday, 3rd that of the dark half of Magha, Saka 1113 ( 1191 CE). He was a resident of Gangaikonda Cholapuram and thus, evidently patronized by the Chola Kings. Rajendra Chola (1012-1044) founded the city to commemorate his victory over Ganges campaign. Somadeva Yajva"s forefathers had been with the Cholas and he became the Royal Astronomer and the chief of the Astronomical Colleges (Vidhyalayas) in the Chola territories interacting with others. This all of sudden could not have come into existence. Referring to Post-Sangam literature, we come across Civaga Cintamani mentioning existence of Colleges. It is very interesting and significant to note that the well-established educational system in the Tamizhagam during 9th-10th centuries.

Somadeva Yajvan has written commentaries on the following works:

* Aryabhatiya of aryabhata (c.500).

* Mahayatra of Varahamihira (c.500)

* Laghumanasa of Majula (c.932).

* Jataka-paddhathi of Sripati (c.1039)

His commentary on Sripati proves that the Indian astronomers were in touch with each other discussing on the subject matter dealt with. Suryadeva or their disciples must have accompanied with Rajendra during his overseas campaigns. Thus, during the Chola period, the knowledge of geography accompanied with cartography must have been there, as otherwise, Rajendra chola’s navy could not have navigated and directed his ships exactly going to the respective countries, carried the campaign by landing on the shores respective cities of the countries after anchoring. Cholas used small boats to reach the shores. After campaign, they came back to their ship and started sailing after de-anchoring. This proves that Cholas were having maps of India accompanied with the South East countries. It seems that during chola period , even the traders and businessmen, will also be trained warriors and good navigators with the knowledge of shipping, astronomy, geography and oceanography.

Civaga Cintamani mentions about the existence of “books on the knowledge of Oceans", which is very significant in the context. It covers all aspects of Ships, ship building etc.,it mentions that the sailors should be capable of handling all eventualities considering the dangers involved in ocean-trade including , tempest, piracy etc.

The Astronomical link among the S E Asian countries and India.

.. The movement of Cholas, particularly, Somadeva Yajvan with Rajendra’s navy to S E Asian countries could be a source for the spread of astronomical knowledge .

Hindu tradition makes mention of the conjunction of the “seven planets” (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury, sun and moon) and Ketu (southern lunar node, the northern node/ Rahu being by definition in the opposite location) near the fixed star Revati (Zeta Piscium) on 18 February 3102 BC. This date, at which lord Krishna is supposed to have left this world, is conventionally believed to be the start of the Kali-Yuga, calculation of planetary positions is a highly complex affair requiring good knowledge of a number of physical laws, universal constants and actual measurements of densities, diameters and distances. Indian astronomy was remarkably sophisticated that it could calculate the planetary positions with precision. These were arranged in the form of astronomical tables. One such astronomical table to find out the planetary movements was trivalore astronomical table In the later centuries Jesuits from Cochin , Goa moved to China and then to S E Asian countries and back to Pondicherry, Tranqubar etc., collected the trivalore astronomical table along with all scientific and technical manuscripts, tables, charts and materials related to shipping and ship building and transported them to Europe. The Tiruvalore astronomical table created a great storm in the medieval Europe making the mathematicians, astronomers and scientists to study them since tables had accurate calculations starting from the first day of Kaliyuga that started coinciding with a planetary conjunction or alignment that occurred on 18 feb 3102 BCE ( the first day of kaliyuga)

Indians used to write books on Palm-leaves, particularly, in South India. They used different scripts to Sanskrit and Tamil languages on various subjects. Most of the original Sanskrit books are missing, as the arabs and European missionaries have taken them away and after taking notes have destroyed the originals

However fragments of translated ‘kappal sattiram ‘ was found with the Danish sea farers. Most of the verses have been written with defective words, language and grammar, it is evident that the Danish must have engaged poor scribes to write this work.

Details found in fragments of Kappal Sattiram

Kappal Sattiram – Science and Technology of Ships and Shipping deals with many aspects shipping and ship building technology. It also mentions about the Mathematics involving points / dots . it must have been connected with Cartography making points on the maps drawn, developed, corrected and modified. In those days, maps could have been produced only after undertaking any voyages. Ironically, such projection in navigation charts used is known as the Mercator, named after the Flemish mathematician and geographer Gerardus Mercator (1512-94), who reportedly devised it. But it is evident that they must have known from Indians, as existence of such method is mentioned here. At what circumstances the destruction of a ship with cargo would occur is mentioned. At what circumstances the ship would return successfully with earned profits after selling the goods aboard is also given. These two exigencies have been given in astrological interpretation involving astronomical observation. The Tamils must have found out the arrival of Arab and European vessels to S E Asian countries at a particular time, as their starting with winds from their destinations had been different from that of Indians. However, they tried to coincide with the timings of Indians with an intention to compete initially and then seize cargo by piracy realizing their law-abiding nature. Moreover, the cunning Arabs and Europeans must have used Indian flags, symbols, dress etc., to cheat the Indians to complete their piracy. Persons with two eyes and one eye are compared figuratively with Sun and Moon. Danger to cargo would come from the persons with one eye , as they stealthily attack other vessels without following any marine-ethics or Maritime regulations. This is clear indication that Tamils knew of the nature of pirates, who were not Indians, as they were not following the Indian ethics of not attacking the vessels of others. Incidentally, the western depiction of standard pirates has been “one-eyed"! Interestingly, another point implied is about the persons with “Surya dhristi", “Chandra dhristi", “Raja dhristi", Griha dhristi", “Rakka dhristi" etc. They were nothing but persons with eye-sight of Moon, Sun, King, Planets, sides etc. in other words, the ocean going ships had such experts / observers of Solar, lunar, planetary motions and time calculations. As they had to visit different countries, they had to know about the Kings of such countries, thus the experts of Kings. And there were experts in observing directions also, as it is important in navigation. As such things couldnot have been possible without past experience, it is evident that the experts mentioned must have had books on such subject matter.

The text also gives statistical details of planets, asterisms, stars etc.

The measurements for masts and anchors are given.

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Though the details of Indian shipping, the astronomical documents, instruments and maps are also surprisingly missing, though, usage of them were there, as there couldn’t be a naval expedition without them. However we have corrabrative evidences like inscriptions, writings of foreign travelers, ballads and tales, art and architecture.

Rajendra chola’s overseas conquests

Great tamil writer Amarar kalki in his magnum opus ‘ponniyin selvan’ says the land stretching from south of china to java was divided into many kingdoms like arumananadu, khamboja desham, manakkavaram ,talaitakkolam, mappalam, mayurudingam, lankashokam, tamiralingam, and lamuri desham. All these kingdoms were under the suzerainty of the powerful Sri vijaya empire. Srivijaya empire was located near Palembang in Sumatra.. Kadaram ( present day kedah in Malaysia) was the capital of srivijaya empire.it was a powerful maritime empire at the time and it was ruled by sailendra dynasty.Sangarama Vijayatungavarman was the son of Mara Vijayatungavarman was the king of srivijiya during Rajendra chola’s period. The Sailendra dynasty had been in good relations with the Chola Empire during the period of Rajaraja Chola . Rajaraja encouraged Mara Vijayatungavarman to build the Chudamani Viharam at Nagapattinam. kalki in his ‘pooniyin selvan‘explains in detail about this chudamani viharam at Nagapattinam. Rajendra confirmed this grant in the Anaimangalam grants( also called as leydan grants since they are preserved in leydan museum in Holland) showing that the relationship with Srivijaya was still continued be friendly. Srivijaya empire and the South Indian empires were the intermediaries in the trade between China and the arabs. Both the Srivijaya and Cholas had active dialogue with the Chinese and sent diplomatic missions to China.

The Chinese records of the Song Dynasty show that first mission to China from Chu-lien (Chola) reached that country in 1015 CE and the king of their country was Lo-ts’a-lo-ts’a (Rajaraja). Another embassy from Shi-lo-cha Yin-to-loChu-lo (Sri Raja Indra Chola) reached China in 1033 CE and a third in 1077 CE during Kulothunga Chola I. The commercial intercourse between Cholas and the Chinese were continuous and extensive.The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval and the license from the customs force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade. The normal trade voyage of those days involved atleast three voyages, starting with the Indian goods (mainly spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China and in the return direction the Chinese goods (silk, incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. The close diplomatic tie between the Song dynasty of China and Cholas facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways.

Piracy in Southeast Asia

The Strategic position of Sri Vijaya and Khamboja (modern day Cambodia) as a mid-point in the trade route between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Realizing their strategic location the Sri Vijaya empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the strait of mallacca and adjoining areas. The benefits were twofold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties. Piracy also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya,The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the considerable loss on every voyage. Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy,had little effect. With the rise in piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses for their cavalry began to demand high prices for their trade. This affected the Chola army and the Chinese were also affected by the piracy menace, as they too were losing revenue.The culmination of centuries of combined naval traditions of tamils led to the most known accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter),the expedition of the Chola navy into the Malay peninsula.

In c1025 , the Chola Navy crossed the bay of bengal from kodiakarai ,Nagapattinam and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. Chola navy consisted of able and experienced military generals like Senapati Narkkana Sri Krishnan Raman aka Rajendra-Chola-Brahmamarayan of Keralantaka Chaturvedimangalam , Irayiravan Pallavaraiyan who also served during the reign of Rajaraja and .Narkanna Jananathan, the son of Krishnan Raman,

Manakkavaram(in the tip of nocobar islands) acted as a intermediary garrison port for the cholasThe cholas followed the tactic of anchoring ships well before the land and sailing in small boats to attack kadaram. so that the incoming warriors from the ships land and enter into cities so that the conquest is complete Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present day Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malayan peninsula were also attacked. Kadaram, the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom, was sacked and the king taken captive. He was captured and his city seized; his treasure the (Vidyadhara) `taranam' at the Gate of his city and two other doors with jewels were carried off'. Rajendra Chola extended his trade protectorates to Madamalingam ( Jaya in the Malaya Peninsula), Mappapalam `defended by the water'. Talai-Takkolam on the isthmus of Kra, Panna watered by the river on the east coast of Sumatra, Mayirvdingam by the sea a state dependent on Palembang,langashokam (Langasuka) . Ilamurideram (Lamuri) in the far north of Sumatra and many other places in malay peninsula.The king Sangrama Vijayattounga who styled himself as King of the Ocean Lands, was short circuited by Rajendra chola’s expedition where he was captured and lost his kingdom of Sri Vijaya. The campaign led to acceptance of the Chola suzerainty by Srivijaya. Sangaram Vijayatungavarman was restored to the throne at his agreement to pay periodic tribute to Rajendra. Even today there are ballads in malay peninsula which tell how the king Raja Chaim , destroyed Ganganagara on the Dinding river, as well as a fort on the Lengiu, a tributary of the Johora River, and finally occupied Turnasik, the site of the future Singapore'.. Ruins of Navagraha temple of chola period can be found atop of a hill adjoining kedah even today. It seems that navagraha temple also acted as light house for mariners .Kadaram became a trade post of cholas and until next century till the reign of kulothunga chola there was an active interaction with srivijaya.

Regarding kadaram expedition the chola inscription says

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In the 22nd year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who,-..conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi..etc.-

and who-having sent many ships in the midst of the billowing sea and having [captured] Sangirama-vijaiyattungopanma, the king of Kidaram, along with his elephants..,took [the large heap of treasures that he had rightfully amassed], the Vichchadira-ttorana at the war-gate of the enemy's extensive city, the wicket door set with jewels of great splendour, and the door set with large jewels;the extensive sri-Vijaiyam; Pannai watered by the river; the ancient Malaiyur, whose fortress was on a high hill; Māyirudingam, the moat around which was the deep sea; Ilangāsōbam, of undaunted heroic deeds; Māppappālam, having abundant waters as it guard; Mēvilambangam, which had fine fortifications as its defence; Valaippandūru, situated in the midst of green jungles; Talaittakolam, praised by great men versed in the sciences; Madamalingam, of steady heroic deeds; Nilamuri-desam, whose fierce strength was increased by enmity; Mānakkavāram having gardens, in which the flowers were full of honey; and Kidaram, of fierce strength, guarded by men who wore ankle-rings

Rajendra’s territories now included coastal burma (Myanmar), the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, maldives, Srivijaya (sumatra, Java and malayasia in S.E. Asia) and Pegu Islands.Finally the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya king (as per his request)to ensure cooperation in curbing piracy.Remains of a number of Hindu Temples (with Tamil Dravidian architecture)have been discovered around various parts of S.E.Asia attesting to the presence of the chola army. Tanjavur inscriptions also state that the king of Kambhoja (Kampuchea) requesting Rajendra’s help in defeating enemies of his Angkor kingdom . Chola armies also exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia , Brunei, Fiji , parts of Islands of Australia and Vietnam.

Thus the imperial chola army along with the efforts of chola navy which started their voyage from the banks of R.Cauvery reached the banks of R.Mekong in their long march.

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After all these successful campaigns Rajendra Chola I earned the famous title of Poorvadesamum, Gangaiyum Kadaramum Konda Ayyan. He was also called Gangaikonda Chola and other famous titles like Mudigondasozhan, Irattapadikonda Sozhan among scores of other titles

Closing years

Rajendra’s long reign saw almost continuous campaigns and conflicts trying to hold his huge empire together. Rajendra’s sons carried out most of the campaigns during the late period of his reign. The emperor refrained from taking the field personally allowing his sons to win glory and distinction.Rebellions in the Pandya and Kerala countries called for severe action and Rajadhiraja Chola I suppressed them. He also undertook a campaign in Sri Lanka to quell a rebellion instigated by Kassapa.

Rajendra Chola was very pious and he converted many of the temples that were originally brick structures into stone shrines.. He built a huge Siva Temple in Gangaikondacholapuram and consecrated. Soon after this, the capital was moved from Thanjavur to Gangaikondacholapuram. Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram before his 17th reignal year.Most of the Chola kings who succeeded Rajendra were crowned here. They retained it as their capital, reoriented and trained the efficient Chola army.

Rajendra’s legacy

The closing years of Rajendra forms the most splendid period of Cholas. The extent of the empire was the widest and the military and naval prestige was at its highest. The emperor was ably assisted by his sons and other members of his family. The Chola imperialism was a benevolent one attested by the presence of the traditional rulers in the Pandya and Kerala countries and the act of reinstating the Srivijaya king even after his defeat.

Successors of Rajendra Chola

Rajendra Chola was active for about thirty-two years in expanding the Chola Empire. He had kept the prestige of Chola dynasty intact which was acquired during the previous reign. His titles like Mudikonda, Gangaikonda, Kadarangonda and Pandita Chola epitomise his greatness. His three sons, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, and Virarajendra I ascended the throne in consecutively, and his daughter, Ammangadevi, was the queen of Rajaraja I of Vengi and mother of Kulottunga chola.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions in this subject by doyen among historians, K.A.Nilkanta sastri without whose pioneering books‘ The Colas” and ‘ The history of South india’ , the present day protagonists of tamil language including many ‘thalivars” would have virtually known nothing about the glorious tamil culture which they are proud of.

Eminent historian R. C. Majumdar after discussing the “struggle between the Sailendras and the Cholas", long back pointed out, “That the story of this victory is not merely an imagination of the court-poets, but based on facts, is proved, beyond doubt, by the detailed references to the vassal states. It is interesting to note that many of these States are included in the Sailendra Empire by later Chinese authorities".

In spite of being a emperor of whole of S E Asia , we find only a modest statue of him in gangai konda cholapuram temple.. In this statue Rajendrachola is depicted as worshipping the feet of Lord Shiva and Parvati It enhances the greatness of the emperor’s personality.

Rajendra chola cannot be dismissed as a foot note in Indian history. He can only be compared to Samudra gupta ,Alexander the great , and Napoleon Bonaparte. It is high time that his rightful and well deserved place in Indian history is accorded to him.

I am eagar the receive your opinions. Thank you .